Acta Kinesiologica

Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 in Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study on Perceived Physical Activity Decline and Mental Health

2025-06-28T15:26:47+02:00

Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic has severely impacted the mental and physical well-being of adolescents. In particular,
the literature has shown that the pandemic has had a significant impact on anxiety, depression and physical activity. The
present study aims to investigate whether adolescents have changed their frequency of physical activity after the pandemic.
It also examines whether these changes were in any way related to their mental health status in the post-acute phase of
the COVID-19 pandemic, when the immediate emergency measures had subsided, but residual psychological consequences
were still observable.

Methods: A sample of 218 high school students (Female=130; Male= 88) from two Italian public schools completed the
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), along with ad hoc
questions to assess their self-perceived impact of COVID-19 on their physical activity. Multinomial logistic regression analysis
was used to examine the relationships between mental health variables and physical activity behavior.

Results: Stress, anxiety and depression were significant predictors of a perceived reduction in physical activity, with
depression showing the strongest influence (χ²(6) = 31.489, P< .001; χ²(6) = 32.223, P< .001; χ²(6) = 40.083, P< .001). In
addition, gender differences were notable: women reported higher levels of psychological distress and a greater decrease
in physical activity. The IPAQ data confirmed that most respondents experienced a decrease in physical activity after the
pandemic and linked this to the psychological experiences of the pandemic.

Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study to show how COVID-19 affects the frequency of physical activity in
adolescents and how this change is related to the psychological distress they reported as a result of the pandemic. These
findings highlight the need for school and community-based interventions that combine physical activity promotion with
mental health support, particularly for vulnerable subgroups such as female adolescents.

Snoezelen Therapy Reduces Stress and Biomedical Markers in Physiotherapy Students During Examinations

2025-06-11T10:32:54+02:00

Purpose: Stress is the body’s internal reaction to any external stimulus that is considered harmful. Nowadays, many scientists
deal with the issue of stress and coping strategies among students. Among the methods described as a form of relaxation
therapy is the Snoezelen method, which is one of the most popular therapeutic methods included in so-called multisensory
environments. This study aimed to assess the impact of Snoezelen therapy on stress in physiotherapy students during an
examination session.

Methods: Fifty-two randomly selected physiotherapy students qualified to participate in the study. They were divided into
two groups: the experimental group (26 people: 18 women and 8 men), which included students who underwent a series
of nine 30-minute sessions (for three weeks on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays) 30 min each, in the Snoezelen room,
and the control group (26 people: 18 women and 8 men), who had no therapeutic intervention. Each person participating
in the study completed the authors’ survey questionnaire and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) twice, and all
people had their resting blood pressure and resting heart rate measured twice, and an electromyographic examination of the
trapezius dorsi muscle performed.

Results:Some of the tested indicators improved significantly in the experimental group after therapy, including PHQ-9, blood
pressure after session 3 to 9, heart rate after session 2 to 9 and muscular activities (rest, abduction od the upper limb and rest after fatigue phases). Such correlations were observed in the control group only in blood pressure after first and the last measurement.

Conclusions: A series of therapeutic sessions in the Snoezelen room improved the level of relaxation and reduced the level of
stress, alleviated the symptoms of depression and lowered the heart rate and blood pressure in the studied students.

Kinanthropometric profile, hip bone mineral density, and the incidence of bone stress fractures in professional middle and long-distance runners

2025-07-09T17:56:56+02:00

Purpose: This study aimed to identify the kinanthropometric profile, hip bone mineral density (BMD), and frequency of
bone stress fracture (BSF) in professional middle-distance and long-distance runners.

Methods:Thirty-seven professional male runners participated: middle-distance runners and long-distance runners aged
23.6 ± 2.6 years with over 6 years of training experience. Kinanthropometric measurements were performed according
to ISAK standards, including body composition and Heath-Carter somatotype assessment (endomorphy, mesomorphy,
ectomorphy). Hip BMD, bone mineral content (BMC), and T-scores were measured using DXA at the total and femoral neck
(FN) and trochanter (TR) regions. BSF history was collected through face-to-face interviews and medical records. Body Mass
Index (BMI) was calculated.

Results: Middle-distance runners presented superior all bone parameters (large effect: > .8). Long-distance runners have the
highest frequency of fracture incidence compared to middle-distance runners (68.5% vs 66.5%). The results of covariance
analyses showed that BMD FN was significantly influenced by muscle mass (kg) and endomorphy (scores) (adj. R2 = .56).
The same effect of these two variables was noted on the T-score FN (adj. R2 = .75). In turn, BMC FN was affected by the type
of sports competition, muscle mass (kg), and endomorphy (scores) (adj. R2 = .84). BMD TR was significantly influenced by:
endomorphy (scores) and mesomorphy (scores) (adj. R2 = .78). BMC TR was significantly affected by muscle mass (kg) (adj.
R2 = .75). In turn, T-score TR was influenced by muscle mass (kg), endomorphy (scores), and mesomorphy (scores) (adj. R2
= .68).

Conclusions: This study demonstrated that the type of athletic training and body tissue composition had a significant impact
on BMD in the hip region. The type and specificity of training in middle-distance runners had a more favourable effect
on bone parameters compared to long-distance runners. This relationship may be related to the greater mechanical load
resulting from greater muscle mass and more intense osteogenic stimuli.

The Association of physical activity and physical fitness with gait speed in female university students

2025-06-05T11:41:33+02:00

Purpose: Associations of gait speed with physical activity and physical fitness are well studied in population of older adults,
but such studies are lacking in the population of young adults. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore the association
between 1) physical activity and gait speed 2) physical fitness components and gait speed.

Methods:A total of 198 first- and second-year female students (age 19.28 ± .98 years; stature 166 ± 6.3 cm; body weight
62.37 ± 11.8 kg; body-mass index (BMI) 22.68 ± 4.22 kg/m2) attending university were recruited. To assess gait speed, we
used a 4-meter gait speed test. To assess muscle fitness, we used to stand broad jump was used and to assess motor fitness
we used 4×10-meter shuttle run test. We used International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-SF) to assess
the level of physical activity.

Results: Univariate regression analysis showed that only 4×10 m shuttle run test was associated with gait speed (β= - .021).
In unadjusted multivariate regression analysis model only 4×10 m shuttle run test (β= - .034) was associated with gait speed.
In a model adjusted for body-mass index and age only 4×10-meter shuttle run test (β= - .033) was associated with gait speed.

Conclusions: Our study shows a significant association between motor fitness and gait speed in female university students.
Those with low levels of motor fitness should be included in exercise programs to enhance their fitness and prevent any
potential gait abnormalities.

Analysis of self-reported declared physical activity among female and male first-year students using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire - Short Form (IPAQ-SF)

2025-07-23T17:24:02+02:00

Purpose: The present study aimed to assess the PA levels in first-year Slovak university students, with an analysis of
differences in the amount of energy expenditure related to PA, the intensity and frequency of PA undertaken by them
according to gender and BMI category.

Methods:The research was conducted among 1,665 first-year university students from all public universities in Slovakia.
The International Physical Activity Questionnaire - short form (IPAQ-SF) was used to assess PA levels, and information on
body weight and height was used to calculate body mass index (BMI). A total of 1,314 questionnaires were included in the
final analysis.

Results: The results of our study indicate that more than 76% of students engage in moderate or high levels of PA, with over
41% achieving a high PA level. Comparison of the energy expenditure of male and female students according to the IPAQ-SF
protocol clearly confirmed that women are less physically active than men (P≤ .001). The analysis of differences in energy
expenditure between underweight, normal-weight, and overweight/obese subjects showed no statistically significant
differences within each PA level, but underweight participants spent significantly more time sitting than normal-weight
individuals (P= .023). Additionally, underweight individuals had significantly lower energy expenditure for TPA compared to
overweight/obese individuals (P= .034).

Conclusions: An interesting, albeit unexpected, finding that contradicts common assumptions is the observation that
underweight students spend significantly more time sitting than those with normal weight. Further research should explore
potential explanations for this phenomenon. Psychological factors, such as depression, anxiety, or eating disorders, may
contribute to reduced appetite, increased fatigue, and subsequently, lower PA engagement.

The Role of Sociodemographic Factors and Decision- Making Styles in Perceived Stress Among Volleyball Referees

2025-06-13T12:14:06+02:00

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between sociodemographic indicators and decision-making
styles and the level of perceived stress in Polish volleyball referees.
Methods: A total of 141 volleyball referees participated in the study, including 68.09% men (n= 96) and 31.91% women (n=
45). The mean age of the participants was 38.94±15.79 years. To identify the preferred decision-making style of volleyball
referees, the study used the General Decision-Making Style Inventory (KSPD in Polish). Perceived stress of volleyball referees
was measured using the Polish adaptation of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). The survey was conducted online using a
test battery of self-report questionnaires.
Results:Regression analysis revealed that both sociodemographic factors and decision-making styles significantly predicted
stress levels in volleyball referees. Sociodemographic factors alone explained 8.4% of the variance in stress (R²= .084, P=
.035), with gender emerging as the only significant predictor. Men reported lower levels of perceived stress than women
(B= -4.128, P= .003). When decision-making styles were included in the model, a significant improvement in the model was
observed, with the power of the explained perceived stress level increasing to 28.8% (R²= .288, P< .001). In this extended
model, gender remained a significant predictor. Among decision-making styles, the rational (B= - .447, P= .037) and
spontaneous (B= .442, P< .001) styles were identified as factors associated with lower levels of perceived stress. In contrast,
the avoidant style was identified as a factor associated with higher levels of perceived stress (B= - .331, P= .038).
Conclusions:The findings indicate a significant association between decision-making styles, gender, and perceived stress
levels among volleyball referees. It would seem important to include a gender perspective in stress support and prevention,
and to focus on developing adaptive decision-making styles.

An Evaluation of Postural Balance in Single-leg and Double-leg Conditions in Patients with Reconstruction of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Healthy Controls

2025-07-08T10:52:11+02:00

Purpose: Following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACL-R) and rehabilitation, individuals undergo a series of
evaluations to ensure a safe return to sports participation. The high re-injury rates that have persisted following ACL-R
indicate that the current assessments may not be able to accurately identify persistent deficits. This investigation was
designed to evaluate the balance control of ACL-R individuals and healthy controls in different task conditions (single and
double legs).

Methods: The study involved twenty-seven participants: 13 ACL-R (age: 24.46 ± 2.73 years; height: 1.78 ± .09 m; body mass:
77.00 ± 10.35 kg; BMI: 24.10 ± 2.19 kg/m2) and 14 healthy controls (age: 25.36 ± 3.37 years; height: 1.77 ± .06 m; body mass:
77.93 ± 14.65 kg and BMI: 24.84 ± 4.07 kg/m2). The postural balance was assessed by measuring the center of pressure
(CoP) displacement in the medio-lateral and anterior-posterior directions under various conditions, including static and
dynamic, open and closed eyes, and single-leg and double-leg support. To quantify the activity of the lower limb muscles
(vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, tibialis anterior, and lateral gastrocnemius), the sEMG activity was recorded synchronously
with the CoP in the various tasks.

Results. There were no differences observed between the limbs of either group (P > .05). In comparison to the control group,
the ACL-R exhibited a significantly higher CoP displacement (medio-lateral) in the double-leg dynamic condition (P < .05). In
contrast, the two groups did not show any significant differences in CoP in the single-leg condition (P > .05). sEMG analysis
revealed significantly higher tibialis anterior activity in the ACL-R group than the control group during dynamic double-leg
balance (P < .05).

Conclusion. In contrast to healthy controls, individuals who underwent ACL-R appeared to exhibit a persistent postural
balance deficit, particularly in dynamic double-leg conditions. The tibialis anterior of both legs exhibited abnormal
neuromuscular activation patterns, which characterized these alterations. Therefore, the comparison of operated and nonoperated
limbs in the assessment of postural balance may not be a reliable criterion for determining the alterations and,
ultimately, the safe return to sports play of individuals with ACL-R.

Collaborative Learning Effects on Tactical Communication Skills and Movement-Pattern Recognition in Handball: A Randomized Controlled Trial

2025-07-08T15:45:33+02:00

Purpose: To investigate whether collaborative learning methods enhance engagement in tactical learning, self-efficacy for
tactical skill development, and perceptions of training effectiveness compared to traditional coach-directed instruction in
handball players.

Methods: Twenty male handball players (aged 26.60 ± 1.50 years, stature 189.00 ± 1.90 cm, weight 90.90 ± 2.30 kg, BMI 25.40
± 1.20 kg⋅m-2) participated in a 12-week randomized controlled trial. Participants were randomly assigned to experimental
(n=10, collaborative peer learning) or control groups (n=10, traditional coach-directed instruction). Both groups focused
on tactical communication skills. Assessment included validated scales for collaborative learning engagement, self-efficacy,
tactical skills acquisition, and perceived training value. Data were analysed using repeated measures ANOVA with effect sizes
calculated.

Results: The experimental group showed moderate improvements in collaborative learning engagement (16.00 vs. 3.00%, P
< .001, d = 2.68 vs P= .001, d= 1.45), self-efficacy (22.00% vs. 8.00%, P= < .001, d= 2.65 vs P < .001, d= 1.63), tactical learning
engagement (12.00% vs. 4.00%, P< .001, d= 3.60 vs P= .018, = .91), and perceived training value (15.00% vs. 5.00%, P= .001,
d= 3.39 vs P= .001, d= 1.49). Time×group interactions were significant for all measures (P< .05).

Conclusion: The development of tactical communication skills in handball can be improved by learning together with peers.
In addition to standard training, sports educators should consider incorporating peer-supported learning strategies. For
future studies, larger sample sizes and objective performance metrics are needed to demonstrate competitive performance
improvements and develop ideal implementation methods.

The Relationship Between Physical Activity, Exercise Goals, and Health Satisfaction in Elderly Women

2025-07-22T22:56:56+02:00

Purpose: The aim of the present study was to assess the intensity of physical exercise, its objectives, and satisfaction with
health among women over the age of 60 years.

Methods: The study included 577 physically active women aged 60-79 (mean age 67.8±4.8 years), residing in northern and
central Poland. Standardized tools were used, namely, the Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire and the
Inventory of Physical Activity Objectives. Nonparametric statistical methods were applied.

Results: There was a difference between the intensity of physical activity (Activity Metabolic Index – AMI) and the strength
of motivation (motivational value - MV), time management (TM) and choosing physical activity vs. other goals (motivational
conflict - MC) (P < .05 for the H test, each time). Women engaging in low (AMI_L), high (AMI_H) and total (Total_AMI) levels
who considered MV important, achieved better results compared to those who considered it unimportant (P < .001 for the
U test in each case). Those who appreciated the importance of physical activity goals on the MC scale and exercised at the
AMI_M, AMI_H, Total_AMI levels achieved better results compared to those who considered them unimportant (P < .001; P <
.01; P < .01 for the U test, respectively). Respondents with better results on the MV, TM, MC scales were more satisfied with
their health compared to those who were dissatisfied (P < .001 for the U test) (moderate effect size: Rg= - .29; Rg= - .28; Rg=
- .24).

Conclusions: The demonstrated links between the intensity of physical activity, its goals, and the health of older women offer
practical guidance for instructors, trainers and psychologists. The findings suggest that it is possible to support and shape
additional motivations and to set new realistic goals that may enhance perseverance in action and thus undertake lifelong
physical activity.

The Impact of Physical Exercise Interventions on Gait Performance in Individuals with Down Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2025-06-03T11:44:06+02:00

Purpose:The objective of this study was to assess the impact of structured physical exercise on gait performance among
people with Down syndrome (DS), providing evidence-based exercise recommendations.

Methods: A comprehensive search of EBSCO, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus
was conducted up to April 2024 and updated in April 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs comparing
structured physical exercise interventions with non-exercise or usual care controls were included. Meta-analyses were
performed on gait-related outcomes, including the 8-foot Up and Go Test (8UG) and the 6-minute Walking Distance Test
(6MWT). A descriptive synthesis was conducted for outcomes where a meta-analysis was not feasible due to substantial
heterogeneity or insufficiently comparable data across studies.

Results: A total of eight studies (seven RCTs and one quasi-RCT) involving 202 participants were included. Physical exercise
interventions significantly improved 6MWT (mean difference (MD) = 43.19; 95% confidence interval (CI): 19.50 to 66.88; I²
= 0%; P = .0004) and 8UG (MD = .76; 95% CI: .27 to 1.25; I² = 0%; P = .002). The descriptive analysis indicated that physical
exercise may improve walking speed, the Timed Up and Go Test (TUG), spatial parameters, and joint kinematics among
individuals with DS.

Conclusion: Preliminary evidence shows that structured physical exercise may be associated with improvements in gait
performance in individuals with DS; however, the overall certainty of the evidence remains low due to the small sample
sizes and methodological limitations. Future high-quality studies are required to validate these findings, compare structured
exercise interventions with active control programs matched for exercise volume, and identify the most effective exercise
modes, intensities, and individualized strategies for gait rehabilitation in this population.

Systematic review registration: INPLASY202540108