Acta Kinesiologica

Active Free Time in Adolescents with and Without Intellectual Disability: An Exploratory Study

Milka Caltanella — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The core purpose of this research was: (1) to evaluate physical activity patterns (PA) using objective measuresamong high-school students and (2) access differences in PA patterns between students with intellectual disability (ID) and
their peers without disability.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study 175 students participated (94 boys and 81 girls), 84 students with ID (45 boys and 39
girls), and 91 students without disability (49 boys and 42 girls). Of 84 students with ID, 45 attended institutions for education
and rehabilitation, and 39 attended regular schools with special or adapted programs. The minutes that students spent in
different physical activity intensities were recorded over seven days and analysed using descriptive and nonparametric
statistical methods.
Results: The median value of moderate PA in students with ID in SCER and RSAP was 60.00 (18.80 - 103.80) min and 81.30
(3.70 - 138.00) min, while in students without ID it was 69.00 (49.70 - 108.70) min during the school-day leisure time. No
differences were detected. All three groups showed very similar values for time spent in moderate PA, with no statistically
significant differences observed (H(2)= .581, P= .747). Although 43.5% and 43.6% of students with intellectual disabilities
did not meet the recommended levels of PA compared with 35% of students without disabilities, no statistically significant
differences were observed.
Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that no significant differences were detected in active free time between
students with and without intellectual disabilities. However, this finding must be interpreted with caution due to the study’s
low statistical power.

The Ballroom Aerobic Test for estimating cardiorespiratory fitness in standard style dancesport athletes: diagnostic accuracy against laboratory measures

Tamara Despot — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The main purpose of the study was to investigate the sensitivity properties of a newly developed Ballroom Aerobic
Test (BAT) protocol for cardiorespiratory fitness against objective methods.
Methods: Twenty-four young dancesport couple athletes who competed at international level were recruited (age 20.40±3.90
years; stature 172.10±8.70 cm; body mass 60.10±9.40 kg; 50.00% women). Physiological parameters from the field-based
BAT protocol were evaluated using the MetaMax® 3B portable gas analyzer, while objective data were generated on the
running ergometer following the KF1 and Bruce protocols. The area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity, specificity, false
positive (FP), false negative (FN), positive likelihood ratio (PLR) and negative likelihood ratio (NLR) were calculated.
Results: The AUC for the BAT against the KF1 and Bruce protocols yielded satisfactory values of > .75, with the largest
agreements for absolute (AUC = .92; 95% CI .82 – 1.00 and .94; 95% CI .90 – 1.00) and relative maximal oxygen uptake
(V̇O2max; AUC = .94; 95% CI .90 – 1.00 and .95; 95% CI .86 – 1.00). Other ventilatory and metabolic parameters yielded
somewhat lower AUC values (.65 ≤ AUC ≤ .93). Sensitivity and specificity analyses exhibited acceptable agreement
percentages between the BAT and KF1/Bruce protocols, ranging from 66.70% to 95.10% for sensitivity and 60.00% to
100.00% for specificity. The largest PLRs were shown for relative V̇O2max in both KF1 (10.31) and Bruce (11.05) protocols.
Conclusions: This study shows that the BAT protocol may be considered as a good diagnostic tool for evaluating ventilatory
and metabolic parameters of standard style dancesport athletes.

Comparison of Junior Wrestlers’ Progression in Asia and Europe

Mykola Latyshev — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyse the longitudinal career outcomes of wrestlers who participated in U20
European and Asian Championships between 2014 and 2022.
Methods: A total of 1,480 athletes competing in freestyle wrestling across all weight categories were included. Data on their
careers, retrieved from the official United World Wrestling database, covered performances at U17, U20, U23, and seniorlevel
international events (Continental, World Championships, and Olympic Games). Athletes were classified by U20 results
(all participants, medallists, winners) and tracked across subsequent stages.
Results: The average number of participants per weight category was higher in Europe (13.04) than in Asia (9.15),
indicating greater competition density. Performance analysis at U20 level revealed that 41.84% of Asian wrestlers became
medallists, and 10.93% winners, compared to 28.75 and 7.67% in Europe (P< .01). European athletes, however, showed
stronger continuity at subsequent stages: 62.65% of U20 participants had competed at U17 level and 52.25% advanced
to U23, compared to 39.15 and 25.40% in Asia (P< .01). At senior Continental Championships, Asian wrestlers recorded a
higher share of medallists (12.34 vs. 6.68%, P< .01), while European wrestlers demonstrated greater transition rates among
medallists and champions. At the World Championships and Olympic Games, no statistically significant differences were
found, with both continents showing broadly similar progression patterns.
Conclusions: While European athletes more often progressed through U17 and U23 stages, Asian wrestlers achieved
comparable outcomes at the senior level, including World Championships and Olympic Games. Regional differences appear
mainly at developmental stages, whereas elite-level performance converges, underlining the role of U20 competition and
national systems in shaping future champions.

Influence of Motor Abilities on Throwing Performance Across Motor Learning Stages in Physically Active Female Athletes

Frane Žuvela — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the influence of different motor abilities on performance in shot put, discus,
and javelin among women, as well as the changes in their importance across different stages of motor learning.
Methods: Participants were 21 female athletes (age 20.4 ± 1.2 years, body weight 61.6 ± 8 kg, body height 168.5 ± 5.8 cm)
with recreational to developmental training backgrounds. Over five weeks, participants completed 15 training sessions.
Technical performance and motor abilities (deadlift, overhead medicine ball throw, 10m sprint, standing long jump) were
tested across three measurement points. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and multiple regression.
Results: The results showed that upper-body explosive strength was the main predictor of success in all disciplines, with
the strongest effect in the final stage (shot put β = .76; javelin β = .78). Maximal strength (deadlift) had a modest influence
initially but became significant in the final stage, particularly in shot put (β = .10, P < .001). Sprint speed and lower-body
strength had limited predictive value.
Conclusions: Motor abilities contribute differently to performance at various learning stages. In the early phases, technical
instruction and movement stabilization are essential, while upper-body explosive power becomes a decisive factor once
the technique is automated. These findings emphasize the importance of phased and individualized training adapted to the
discipline and the level of motor development.

Ecological Validity of Maximal Exercise Tests to Simulate Competitive Demands in Amateur Female Handball

Abraham Batalla-Gavalda — 2026-05-08

Purpose: Laboratory tests are fundamental for assessing handball performance, but their ecological validity for amateur
female players is unclear. This exploratory study compared physiological and perceptual responses between common
maximal exercise tests and official match play to determine if they replicate competitive demands.
Methods: Sixteen amateur female handball players completed three laboratory tests (Wingate, cycle ergometer, treadmill)
and were monitored during ten official matches. The data collection included both physiological and psychological indicators:
heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), perceived stress, and mood states.
Results: Peak HR values recorded in the Wingate and Cycle ergometer were lower than those reached during actual
competition (d = -.77 to -.75, P< .05). In addition, compared with the Wingate and cycle ergometer tests, competitive matches
required players to spend a significantly larger proportion of time with their HR exceeding 90% of its maximum. This
contrast was less evident when compared with the treadmill test. A clear mismatch was observed between physiological and
perceptual measures. Despite showing stronger physiological strain during matches -such as greater weight loss and higher
pre-exercise lactate levels- players reported significantly lower RPE values than in the laboratory conditions (d = .27 to .36,
P< .05).
Conclusions: None of the laboratory-based tests accurately reproduced the full demands of a handball match. Although
the treadmill test elicited similar peak HR values, it failed to reflect the sport’s intermittent nature. The Wingate and cycle
tests showed even greater discrepancies in cardiovascular intensity. These findings underline the importance of developing
sport-specific or hybrid assessment protocols that integrate intermittent workloads and cognitive demands for a more valid
evaluation of performance.

Determinants of Forearm Bone Mineral Density among Early Adolescents Female Gymnasts and Swimmers

Wiktoria Pietrzak — 2026-05-08

Purpose: Bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) undergo significant changes during life. Among
athletes, skeletal health is one of the key elements determining the length and quality of a sports career.
Methods: This study aims to identify and compare the key determinants of forearm BMD among early adolescent female
gymnasts (G), swimmers (S), and a non-training group (N), with a focus on training type, nutritional factors, fracture history,
and anthropometric characteristics that may influence bone health during critical periods of growth and development. It
examined 45 girls aged 10.70 ± .90 years. BMD and BMC of the forearm in the distal (dis) and proximal (prox) segments were
measured by densitometry. Dairy consumption and eating habits were assessed by means of a nutritional interview. Basic
somatic measurements were carried out. Somatic maturation status, and puberty rate were determined.
Results: All the analyzed bone parameters were significantly higher in group G compared to S and N (η2> .14; large effect;
P< .001). Significantly more often, BMD below normal was recorded in groups S and N vs G. ANCOVA covariance analysis
was used to assess the strength of the relationship between forearm bone parameters and biological variables, nutritional
variables, and physical activity. The results of covariance analyses showed that BMD dis was significantly influenced by
somatic maturation status, and physical activity (adj. R²= .65; P< .001). A Similar interaction was shown for BMC prox (adj.
R²= .51; P< .001). BMD prox was significantly influenced by physical activity (adj. R²= .60; P< .001). A Similar interaction was
shown for BMC dis (adj. R²= .38; P< .01). Z-score was significantly influenced by dairy products (n/day) and physical activity
(adj. R²= .54; P< .001).
Conclusions: Physical activity, especially high-impact gymnastic training, turned out to be the strongest determinant of bone
parameters of the forearm in girls.

Perceived Social Support and Self-Assessed Health as Predictors of Quality of Life in Seniors

Anna Leś — 2026-05-08

Purpose: Social support is a key factor in the quality of life for individuals over 60, impacting their social functioning and
successful aging. Family support, in particular, strengthens intergenerational ties and fosters a sense of belonging. This study
aimed to explore the social support network of people over 60 and assess their self-rated quality of life.
Methods The survey involved 322 participants, with 300 completing the survey (271 women, 29 men). Two tools were used:
the Polish adaptation of the Norbeck Social Support Questionnaire (NSSQ) and the Short Form-36v2 Health Survey for selfassessment
of quality of life (QualityMetric's PRO CoRE License Agreement. License Agreement: QUO-04385-V4P6T6)
Results: The results revealed no significant correlation between the participants' age and their NSSQ or SF-36 scores.
However, better self-assessment of material situation and health was linked to more indications of individuals providing
support (P=.0016). Additionally, as health self-assessment improved, limitations due to physical health problems decreased
(P=.04). A positive correlation was found between physical fitness self-assessment and the NSSQ subscales, including support
received and provided (P<.05).
Conclusions: The quality of life for older adults remains closely tied to family, with the extent of these relationships influenced
by various individual mechanisms and preferences.

Reliability and validity of the 30-15 intermittent fitness test in female soccer players

Davorin Antonić — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The main purpose of the study was to examine the reliability and validity of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test
(30-15IFT).
Methods: Forty-eight young female soccer players (age = 17.33±1.15 years; height = 175.11±6.10 cm; weight = 67.20±7.13
kg) from three national level competitive clubs were recruited. Test-retest reliability was performed 7 days apart and the
30-15IFT outcome measures were correlated against the Bruce continuous running test protocol.
Results: Vmax (ICC = .90; CV = 1.02%, P< .001), HRpeak (ICC =.91; CV = 1.00%, P< .001) and VO2max (ICC = .91; CV = 1.10%,
P< .001) exhibited high reliability properties. Correlations between the 30-15IFT and continuous running yielded very large
effects for Vmax (R= .72; SEE = .65 km*h-1, P< .001), HRpeak (R= .77; SEE = 5.09 b.p.m., P< .001) and VO2max (R= .73; SEE
= 1.96 ml*kg-1*min-1, P< .001).
Conclusions: This study shows that the 30-15IFT is highly reliable and satisfactory valid tool for assessing aerobic capacity
in young female soccer players.

Development, reliability and performance level discriminative validity of a new badminton-specific reactive agility test

Goran Munivrana — 2026-05-08

Purpose: The main aim of this study was to develop a reliable and ecologically valid badminton-specific reactive agility test
that would provide researchers and practitioners with an easy-to-use instrument to assess both the motor and cognitive
aspects of agility performance.
Methods: Sample of N=41 young badminton players (age 15.72 ± 1.11 yrs) from different performance levels (High (N1=12),
Average (N2=14), Low (N3=15) was subjected to the newly developed badminton-specific reactive agility test (BSARAT) and
four tests that had previously proven to be reliable and valid in badminton practice.
Results: The newly constructed badminton-specific “Reactive Agility Test” (BSARAT) showed a very high internal consistency
between trials (Cronbach’s alpha α= .97) and a high repeatability of the results (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient ICC=
.877). The factor analysis showed high correlation with the same latent dimension extracted from established generic
and badminton-specific agility tests (factor structure coefficient = -.94), clearly indicating adequate construct validity.
Furthermore, the between-subjects ANOVA revealed successful main effect for performance level (significance P< .001;
(partial) eta squared (ηp2= .29). The post-hoc analysis with Bonferroni correction showed significant pairwise differences
between the groups of High and Low performance levels, as was the case for all tests in the test battery.
Conclusions: To summarise, the BSARAT is a reliable, ecologically valid and easy-to-use badminton-specific test that has the
potential to become a more feasible and practical alternative to existing reactive agility tests.

Kinematic Characteristics Associated with Hit and Miss Outcomes in Elite Skeet Shooters: An Exploratory Study

Jian Peng — 2026-05-08

Purpose: This exploratory study investigated kinematic characteristics associated with successful (hit) and unsuccessful
(miss) outcomes in elite Chinese skeet shooters, aiming to identify movement strategies that contribute to shooting success.
Methods: Video data were collected from five finalists of the Chinese national skeet team during internal qualification
competitions for the Paris Olympics. Three cameras (50 Hz) recorded double-target trials at station 3. Each athlete contributed
three successful and three unsuccessful trials. Four critical time points were analyzed: initiation of gun movement (T1), gun
stock contact with the cheek (T2), first shot (T3), and second shot (T4). Variables included gun muzzle displacement and
velocity, center of mass (COM) velocity, joint angles (shoulder, elbow, hip, knee), and stability/balance angles.
Results: At T2, hit shots exhibited significantly smaller gun displacement compared with missed shots (19.555±1.526cm
vs. 22.496±2.375cm, P<.001, Cohen’s d=-1.474), including both horizontal (17.279±1.266cm vs. 19.400±2.388cm, P=.004,
Cohen’s d=-1.110) and vertical components (9.081±1.480cm vs. 11.292±1.524cm, P<.001, Cohen’s d=-1.427). Vertical
velocity was also reduced (.247±.104m/s vs. .284±.099m/s, P=.033, Cohen’s d=-.355). In addition, hit shots demonstrated
a greater rear stability angle (13.580±1.841° vs. 13.100±1.750°, P=.009, Cohen’s d=.267) and a smaller right elbow angle
(70.840±3.363° vs. 72.937±2.710°, P=.026, Cohen’s d=-.686). At T4, hit shots were characterized by a larger right knee
angle (165.319±6.516° vs. 162.019±4.446°, P=.032, Cohen’s d=.592) and a smaller right elbow angle (62.552±6.025° vs.
66.878±3.609°, P=.013, Cohen’s d=-.871). Other joint angles and COM velocity showed no significant differences, though
some variables indicated small to moderate effect sizes.
Conclusions: Effective skeet shooting is closely associated with reduced gun displacement and vertical velocity at T2,
accompanied by a greater rear stability angle and a smaller right elbow angle. At T4, a larger right knee angle and a smaller
right elbow angle further distinguished hit shots from misses. These findings highlight the importance of muzzle control,
trunk posture, and upper limb configuration in enhancing shooting stability and mitigating recoil effects.